Historical and Scientific Perspectives on Homosexuality Essay Example for Free

Historical and Scientific Perspectives on Homosexuality EssayHomosexuality, at least from the point of view of history, has seen many ups and downs. In fact, transgenderedity itself could not be easily classified to be similar from other various racial or segregation issues such(prenominal) as skin color, language, refining, or religion because those factors capture constantly experience negative treatments in the password in homosexuality, has been pointed out by the literature, has enjoyed relatively different antennaes to pending on the culture, the timeline, and even up the historical mount where it is macrocosm applied. For example, from the point of view of historians and document literature on the subject of anthropology, researchers grow uncovered that homosexuality is not a fairly late(a) incident but rather can be traced back as far back as documented history can show itself. For example, in antique Greek, Celtic, and even prehistoric cultures such as the Ind us V whollyey civilizations and prehistoric Egyptian cultures, homosexuality was already an occurrence that has been around and was actually freely accepted by the society where it was operating in.In fact, in anthropological texts and research, the subject of homosexual behavior may be from the point of view of romantic relationships, sexual interaction, and even family institution was freely accepted in those societies where in a significant measurement of civilization can be made (Isay, 2009). However, one commentary and opening on why homosexuality has arrived to the point of judgment and negative scholarship it has now has been pointed out by research as a result of stern monotheistic religious beliefs and Scripture.The three dominating monotheistic religions today on Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. And, both from popular convention and in the understanding of religious texts as hale as the popular opinions of the leaders of the faiths, homosexuality ranges from a tabo o concept in the reality of society towards even complete banning and be incorporate into the religious thought to be illegal and Heretic.In fact, Islam, being one of the near powerful religions today because of its influence not nevertheless in in-between Eastern countries but also in other geographies such as Asia and other Western countries as well, having strict laws against homosexuality and homosexual behavior, continues to influence perception such that many new generations which fol blue that religion and that faith, although already relatively involved in global issues and global perception because of the Internet and other instruction communication technology, still look at homosexuality to be illegal and heretic act and concept because their religion states it to be so.In fact, in all three faiths, a popular Scripture is the city of Sodom and Gomorrah where in the monotheistic God of these religions punish this city because of its homosexual acts such as sodomy and t he like. However, as researchers have also indicated, religions which are not classified under the leading monotheistic beliefs have basically taken homosexuality to be either a normal occurrence in human beings or have at least ignored the subject completely where its practitioners are able to say from a very point of view and spectrum that their faiths and spiritualities accept homosexual behavior.In fact, off all the eastern end not monotheistic religions that are popular in todays society, it is only Buddhism which freely accepts the reality of homosexuality and has been addressed by many of its search for leaders and discussed in many affair spiritual centers. However, because of the relatively low reach and population count of those belonging to this faith, at least from the point of view of religious commentary on homosexuality, it has not yet been able to hassock homosexual perception towards the positive end of the spectrum which is cultural and contextual acceptance.On th e other end of the contextual spectrum of religion, is a scientific approach of homosexual behavior. In such a perspective, origins of homosexuality have been discussed by researchers to be coming from biological factors rather than social factors. This approach has seen popularity only in fairly recent times because of such scientific projects and efforts such as the human genome project and the ability of advanced biology to indicate various genes, indicators, and factors that as researchers have pointed out, have a direct correlation and effect to the fact that individual turns out in the future to be Gay or not.In fact, this is not only a scientific attempt to explain such factors but has actually been published by many research and academic journals all over the valet indicating that scientists have segregated various genetic functions which could associate or at least highly correlate an individuals homosexual behavior with the existence and activation of such genetic funct ions (Haslam Levy, 2006). This is the root of the modern argument of where homosexuality originates if it is brought about by the surroundings or by genetics.Such arguments, however, although fairly popular in the homosexual population, or at least in Western cultures where homosexuality is now freely accepted in society with relatively low levels of taboo perception, is not yet completely proven and documented in scientific picture enough to have any significant conclusions on the subject. Another perspective, perhaps the most popular, is an environmental perspective on homosexuality. According to this point of view, which is popular among behavioral scientists, psychologists, and social theorists, homosexuality comes about directly as a result of the environment and other external factors.Such arguments have developed relative popularity in the 20th century and even in the modern 21st century as behavioral scientists and psychologists have been able to more and more formulate t heories that are backed up by statistical and necessity data that was created using the scientific method of pointing out homosexual tendencies and the correlation and connection of society, other individuals, peers, and even family members and asked experiences in shaping its occurrence (Lewes Gilbert, 2009).As an individual, important processes and most cited upon the occurrence of being homosexual individuals the coming-out process. In fact, the coming-out process itself poses as one of the most significant in major hurdles of homosexuality in todays society because of the judgment that per se comes about in the process itself.However, because of the popularity of such perspectives of scientific and behavioral basis of sexuality were in more and more members of society and even countries and classifications have culture as a whole are beginning to accept the validity of such research, evidence, and findings, the coming-out process, although has not been decreased at least from the point of view of difficulty, is today at least not judge as it was judge during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s.Today, as from personal experience, the coming-out process and admitting not only to friends and family members but even to society as a whole the choice and eventual manifestation of sexual orientation has become easier if not more accepted. However, perhaps an interesting analysis is although such historical and scientific perspectives and frameworks have indeed help in the process of society accepted the existence of homosexuality in todays world, a very difficult approach would be to understand if such perspectives and scientific discoveries have shaped actually being homosexual.This is difficult to answer because causality is often impossible to connect especially if these perspectives and factors did not indeed have any contributions to being a homosexual individual. However, perhaps one factor that has shaped the choice of sexuality and orientation in todays world is t he ability to recognize that there is such a concept as homosexuality and it is a fairly popular convention and many individuals in the world today are members of that orientation group.By recognizing such factor in fact, I as an individual have been able to classify myself an essential need according to behavioral psychologists and sociologists to a certain part and classification of todays environment and society and am able to learn much about myself as well as the culture I am living in today.

Materials of Logistics in Management Essay Example for Free

Materials of Logistics in Manage ment EssayThe efficiency of any manufacturing organisation depends on the availability of division move and materials in the proper quantity, quality, price, range and time. Failure in any of these areas increases termss and decreases profit as certainly as change production methods or ineffective selling techniques. This simple but obvious point has only recently come to be properly understood. This book presents the principles, methods and strategies that even out the modern approach to materials oversight in all sectors of the economy.In analysing business operations, the phrase Value-added concept1 is often used to characterise the difference between the cost of share materials and the selling price of the finished product. This difference in value represents the unique contribution of each organisation to the production process. Many companies produce component parts and materials for other firms manufacturing specialised products Re manded by the customers. On an average, a manufacturing firm buys slightly more than half of the rupee value of its sales. In other words, the value added is typically less than 50 per cent of its sales.Conversely, the average company purchases materials valued at more than half of what it sells. Therefore, a firms profit is to a largish extent decided by how effectively it procures and manages these materials. The organisational approach known as materials management has gained validity in recent years. Production and operations managers found it necessary to develop an nonionized body of knowledge related to planning, acquisition and utilisation of materials in the process of production and it has resulted in the discipline known as mate-rials management.All activities involved in bringing materials into and through the plant are combined under one head known as materials manager. By giving the materials manager overall authority, responsibleness is centralised to assure that the overall cost of materials is kept at the lowest possible level. The basic rationale for this organisational change is to overcome the problems of conflicting objectives. For cample, purchase segments bear upon to ensure continuous supply of component materials may conflict with he inventory control departments objective to minimise inventory levels or the objective of transferral in full car load lots.Today organisations view procurement as a professional activity including activities involved in obtaining materials at tokenish cost, transporting them and providing storage and contemptible toward the production process. It also includes economic analysis of supply (i. e. , purchase economics), demand and prices and the assessment of international events that affect materials. * evolution of materials management Historically, the five Ms of manufacturing firms viz. Men, Materials, Machines, Money and Methods have shifted their assigns from time to time in their relative im portance.In the early days of industrialization, the focus was on men (labour) as they were the main source of productive power. Over a period of time, the emphasis shifted towards machines, which became the main source of industrial power after the Industrial Revolution. As the methods of production became more and more complex due to the increased customer demand for sophisticated products of high quality, there was greater need of efficient management to manage the complex production systems.In the early 1920s, purchasing and maintaining stock of materials was the responsibility of purchasing managers or chief controllers of purchasing and stores in many industries. During and right away after World War II the focus shifted on various functions associated with materials such as purchasing, receiving, inspecting, storing, preserving, handling, issuing, accounting, transporting and disposing surplus and obsolete materials. These functions grouped under one leafy vegetable head kn own as materials manager and the department responsible for all these activities came to be known as materials management department.But the head of materials management department performed a staff function to support the production department and had to report to the production head (director of production) in the organizational hierarchy. The oil crisis of the 1970s changed the priorities of industries all over the world. The exorbitant hike in oil prices and the heavy budget allocations on oil made the industries to control their expenditure on the inputs, mainly materials of all kinds because of the large scope to reduce the expenses on materials.Since the beginning of 20th century, materials have been getting more and more attention and will continue to do so in the future also. Now a days material has* become an important and inevitable input of a production system since the cost of materials and cost on materials (cost incurred in purchasing and storing the materials) put to gether account for 50 to 85% of the production cost depending on the nature of the product and the type of the production system. modern manufacturing organisations adopted systems approach to management, which resulted in the integrated materials management concept.All functions related to materials such as materials planning, purchasing, storing and inventory control were integrated under materials management function. The position of the head of the integrated materials management department was elevated to be on par with heads of other functional areas viz. production, finance and human resources. * importance of materials in manufacturing organisations Materials are any commodities used directly or indirectly in producing a product or service such as raw materials, component parts, assemblies and supplies. In the manufacturing organisations, the important inputs are referred to as 5 Ms viz. Men (Labour), Machines, Money, Materials and Methods.The relative importance among thes e five Ms have shifted from time to time. In the beginning of industrialisation the focus was on machines, men (labour) and methods, but from around 1970 onwards the emphasis is on materials. Material is an important and inevitable input gi J production system since the cost of materials and cost on materials (cost incurred in purchasing and storing the materials) put together account for 50 to 85* of the production cost depending on the nature of the product and the type of the production system * importance of materials managementManagement of materials in most organisations is crucial to their success because the cost of purchasing, storing, moving and shipping materials account for over half of the products cost. Improving productivity is a crucial factor in facing the challenge of competition and this involves driving wipe out the cost of all aspects of business activities. Since there is maximum scope of cost reduction in the area of materials, doing the job of efficient and effective management of materials is seen as the key to higher productivity.

Top Down Approach To Water Resource Managment

Top Down Approach To Water Resource ManagmentEver since the period of Enlightenment, scientists and academics have adopted a top-down nest to managing the surround and its associated visions. The downfall of this persistent ideology is that it solely values or prioritizes professional expert scientific k directlyledge as a foothold for formulating environmental policies and directive decisions concerning the environment (Smith et al, 2008).The consequences of prioritizing expert knowledge was that the local knowledge and experiences of the contacts of people at the grass roots level, were non taken into affection during decision make and was normally regarded as irrelevant (Smith et al, 2008). In the mount of piddle resource trouble, this approach meant that the policies, designings and programs formulated were technical and exclusively scientific in nature, overleaping the dynamics of the friendly realm and exercising of social theory (Smith et al, 2008).The technical nature of policies formulated proved to be locally unsustainable and unacceptable because peeing resource worry is an area that deals with a resource that integrates basic human rights and is central to all life (Smith et al, 2008).Some examples of the consequences of this non-participatory approach to piddle resource perplexity is the construction of large dams for water supply total and irrigation which results in the displacement of thousands of intended beneficiaries or how some goernment have even intentionally used the water policies formulated under this approach, to molest the disenfranchised (Jansky et al, 2005)Along with being purely technical in nature and non-participatory, conventional water resource management approaches focused primarily on the supply of water resources particularly for breeding and other economically inclined purposes.2.2 Supply-driven approachIt has been recognized that the evolution of water resource management is greatly interconnected wi th the offset of the worlds nation (Al Radif, 1999). Until the end of the 19th century, water resource management was primarily focused on the supply of water to users for agricultural, domestic and industrial uses which proved to be successful throughout the 19th century collectible to the low population growth during this period. This approach to water resource management known as the supply-driven approach proved successful because the available water resources during this time period were adequate to meet the unavoidably of the population (Al Radif, 1999).As shown in the Figure 1 above, when the worlds population was approximately 2 billion in the 19th century the fresh water eco agreements basically functi mavind undisturbed as a user, provider of goods and services and a regulator of both water quality and quantity which assumed a sustainable approach was being implemented however, when the population grew to 3 billion over 60 geezerhood, the approach was quickly undermin ed (Al Radif, 1999). This was mainly due to the regimens focus on the supply of water resources by diverting water resources from the original injects to new store pathways. The approach to water resource management resulted in the deterioration of water quality, stresses on water supplies and the degradation of water resources (Al Radif, 1999).3. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE instruction3.1 Definitions, principles and objectivesAccording to the Global Water Partnership (GWP) 2000, Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is viewed simultaneously as a philosophy, knead and approach which promotes the coordinated development and management of water and related natural resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without whippy the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP, 2000 as cited by Funke et al, 2007).IWRM is also described as a guiding principle that necessitates the interdisciplinary, participative and strategic approach to managing water resources, stressing the co ordinate essential interaction between and within both human and natural systems with the aim of achieving sustainable development (Guipponi et al, 2000).Since there is no unambiguous and universally accepted definition the examination of the Dublin principles which form the core of IWRM, allows a clearer understanding of the key issues that define IWRM (Funke et al, 2007).The Dublin principles state thatThe worlds fresh water is finite and a vulnerable water resource vital for human survival, development and the correct functioning of the environment.Water resource management should be a participative process involving all users planners and policy makers at all levels.Women play a key role in the management of water resources and therefore should be involved in decision making.Water should be recognized as an economic good.IWRM emerged in response to the sector by sector technical conventional water resource management approaches an d is more holistic in that it recognizes the various dimensions of water and accepts that water comprises an ecological system create by a number of interdependent components, where each component influences the other (Matondo, 2002). This learning results in management directed to joint consideration of aspects for example water supply, water treatment and disposal and water quality (Mitchell, 1944).While water is a system it is also recognized as a component and therefore its interactions with other systems need to be taken into consideration as changes in one system may have consequences in the other, therefore IWRM is a much broader eyeshot or approach to managing water resources (Matondo, 2002).IWRM does not only take into consideration the complex interconnections of the human and natural systems, it has even broader interpretations as it considers the interrelationships between water and socio-economic development where the main concern is the extent to which the available water supplies is both an prospect for barrier against economic development and how to manage the resource to command sustainable development (Mitchell, 1944).IWRM compared to conventional water management approaches, recognizes and accepts that water resource planning and management can have physical, social and economical impacts and is therefore multi and interdisciplinary involving a wide range of disciplines such(prenominal) as engineering, economics and social science (Matondo, 2002). The aim of formulating multidisciplinary teams in IWRM is communication to view the various perspectives on water resources to ensure the maintenance of ecological functioning and the conservation of water resources (Al Radif, 1999).3.2 Bottom- up approachBy the end of the 1980s the conventional supply-driven management approach proved problematic and incapable of delivering portable water and proper sanitation especially in growing countries. By the mid 1980s early 1990s, the realization an d acceptance of the fact that actions at the grass root level is what makes or breaks policies, resulted in the popularization of a more participatory approach to environmental management termed the bottom-up approach (Smith, 2008).In context of water management, conferences held in New Delhi in 1990, Dublin in 1992 and Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 endorsed confederacy participation which was officially adopted universally as a key guiding principle in sustainable water resource management (Smith, 2008).The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Jeneiro specifically proposed that local communities should be involved in all stages of decision making with regard to the management of water resources to ensure that decisions make are locally appropriate, accepted and sustainable (Smith, 2008).The concept of involving communities in all stages of decision making such as policy and plan formulation and project and program implementation, were based on the fact that local people themselves are considered experts of their own local environment and therefore their knowledge should be highly comprehended (Smith, 2008). Unlike the conventional top-down approach, the bottom-up approach encourages local people to work together on environmental issues within their surrounding environment which consequently provides capacity building and em formerment opportunity to communities that are able to define their specific needs, wants and aims in relation to local water entrance money and management (Smith, 2008).IWRM encompasses all aspects of the environment namely economic, environmental and social aspects however, the approach pays little attention to the ecosystems role as a provider of goods and services which resulted in the suggestion of an ecosystem-based approach (Jewitt, 2002).3.3 Ecosystem-based approachConventional water resource management approaches were typically a command control type of approach in the hotshot that it aimed to control the hydrological cycle through the constr uction of hydrological structures to harvest goods and services and produce predictable outcomes (Jewit, 2002). The reduction of ecosystem variation and functioning, decline in the goods and services provided by ecosystems and resilience of the systems were some of the consequences of adopting this approach (Jewit, 2002).The key components of the ecosystem based approach as shown in figure 3 include capacity building, partnership, policy and planning and the assessment of water resources (Al Radif, 1999).The correct functioning of ecosystems such as headwaters, wetlands and floodplains is vital for human survival since society derives a wide variety of important life sustaining benefits and biodiversity from these systems (Al Radif, 1999). In the context of water resources ecosystems regulate water quality and quantity, habitat resources and provide vital information to society (Al Radif, 1999).Additionally, ecosystems are highly complex systems and the exclusion of vital aspects of the system regarding the environment such as ecological functioning during decision making due to the poor understanding of the systems dynamics results in undermined and unsustainable decisions (Jewit, 2002).This lack of understanding and lack of political willingness to accommodate non-quantitative aspects of ecosystem dynamics results in an incapable management system (Jewit, 2002).An ecosystem-based approach to managing water resources is a realization that management systems need to be elastic anticipatory and adaptive to deal with the complexity of ecosystems. The approach is similar to IWRM however the approach prioritizes ecosystem functioning and its related goods and services (Jewitt, 2002).4. IWRM IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES in spite of the universal acceptance of the Dublin principles which form the core of IWRM, The good implementation of IWRM in each individual country is dependent on the nature and earnestness of the water problems that reside in the cou ntry (Funke et al, 2007).The argument ascribe forward by the European Union regarding the five fundamental principles of good presidential term for the effective implementation of IWRM in each country, is not entirely relevant in developing countries as it is in developed countries (Funke et al, 2007). This is mainly because the situations that occur in developing countries take issue on many levels compared to those that reside in developed countries (Funke et al, 2007). The openness, participation and transparency of governance in developing countries are hampered by more factors compared to developed countries such as illiteracy and widespread poverty and mistrust of government leaders (Funke et al, 2007).Lack of budgets and human resource capacities in developing countries create a gap between water resource management and the application of new legislations, strategies and institutions in practice and it is therefore clear that with the uniquely characterized problems tha t reside in developing countries, the solutions to managing water resources in developed countries will prove inapplicable (Funke et al, 2007).IWRM principles and practices therefore need to take into consideration the local conditions which reside in developing countries such as Africa, if the management approach is to prove sustainable in a long run (Funke et al, 2007).4.1 IWRM in southmost Africa siemens Africa is recognized universally as being at the forefront of adopting IWRM as a water resource management regime (Jonker, 2000). The need for IWRM in the countries stems from climatic, historical and political perspectives all of which differ from developed countries and make the successful and effective implementation of IWRM a challenge (Jonker, 2000).From climatic perspective large parts of the country is water limited due to the low average and highly variable rainfall received in the country. The inequitable patterns of both industrial and agricultural development from a h istorical perspective and the apartheid social engineering and planning legacy from a political perspective, resulted in the unequal access to and use of water resources and more concentrated water demands in particular areas of the country (Jonker, 2000).An additional challenge to IWRM in confederation Africa aroused when the citizens of the country took part in a national democratization process and now have the growing need to participate in decision making processes at all levels (Jonker, 2000). This has its benefits challenge although the problems come in when decision makers have to answer the extent to which citizens are able to have an influence on decisions made and the challenge of trade offs (Jonker, 2000). The management approach embraces a multitude of stakeholders in South Africa which include environmentalists, government at all levels, NGOs and local organizations such as subsistence farmers, traditional leaders and women groups (Shculze et al, 2004).The political transformation in South Africa the mid mid-nineties was used as an opportunity by the water sector for formulating new water law policies and a new water act in 1998. IWRM formed the basis of this transformation and both the constitution and National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 make fundamental facilitations for the effective and successful implementation in South Africa (Jonker, 2000).4.2 The makeup and National Water Act of 1998Despite the peaceful political transition to democracy in South Africa, in the context of water resource management, the tryst and management of water resources was still regulated by the 1956 Water Act which is primarily based on the riparian system water rights making no provision for the integration, equity or facilitation for transparent and open decision making, ecological sustainability or the reduction of poverty (Dollar et al, 2010).The inclusion of the concept of sustainable development into the South African Constitution due to the initiation of a w ater reform process in 1995 resulted in a major shift towards IWRM because the Constitution forms the basis of all policies laws and practices for water management ( Dollar et al, 2010).The values entrenched in the Constitution include equity, the right of access to sufficient water and a rosy environment and thus provides the enabling environment for the formulation and implementation of a new democratic water act ( Dollar et al, 2010). It took over three years for the NWA of 1998 to come into law in South Africa and the NWA recognizes that water is a powerful tool for restructuring society (Dollar et al, 2010). The act encompasses values such as human rights, social justice principles and provides policies and legal frameworks need to ensure the equal, efficient and sustainable supply of water resources (Asmal, 1998).Despite the fact that the NWA does not contain the term IWRM, it encompasses the principles and objectives of the water management approach as set out on the White paper policy document of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (Jonker et al, 2000). The act also makes far-famed provisions and fundamental provisions for the effective implementation of IWRM (Asmal, 1998).Some of the provisions include the recognition by the act that water for basic human needs and proper ecological functioning must be taken as first priority before commercial and other water uses, the change from water rights to water-use rights and makes provision for levies to be charged for all major water users for their consumption (Asmal, 1998). This provision was made to ensure equity and efficiency but was met great protection from the agricultural sector (Asmal, 1998) mainly because the agricultural sector is highly dependent on water resources for irrigation purposes (Schulze et al, 2004).The NWA also facilitates public participation which is one of the core principles of IWRM and stresses that government should involve local communities and all affected and in volved stakeholders during legislation and policy formulation, and take their comments seriously however, even though the their catchment is their responsibility government remains the overseer (Schulze et al,2004).Another important provision of the NWA is the focus on the arrangements and instauration of institutions which resulted in a significant shift to more integrated and co operative approaches to water governance and stakeholder participation to ensure IWRM (Asmal, 1998). The act acknowledges that political boundaries prove inappropriate for water management and watersheds are more relevant. Part of IWRM is to ensure that there is equitable use of shared rivers and development cannot occur in isolation, another highlight of the NWA (Asmal, 1998).These provisions in the NWA of 1998 set the foundation for the implementation of IWRM in South Africa however in spite of the top quality of the act implantation fatigue occurs due to capacity constraints and other challenges to th e effective implementation of IWRM (Asmal, 1998).5. CHALLENGES TO INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT5.1 abstract shortcomingsThe views of authors regarding universally accepted definition of IWRM provided by the Global Water partnership 2000 as being a hamper to the effective implementation of IWRM (Sherwill et al,2007). One of the arguments put forward is that the definition is narrow, incomplete and un intriguing and that this conceptual shortcoming tempts the water resource manager continue implementing the conventional water management practices and labeling it as IWRM (funke et al, 2007).Some authors solicit that for effective implementation, the definition should include allocation to compensate for the inevitable political processes that reshape IWRM. While other authors argue that poverty should be included into the qualified definition the European Union suggests a complete name change of IWRM to Constructively Engaged IWRM Allocation and management which will emphasize the importance of lots implementing IWRM with prime focus on stakeholder involvement (funke et al, 2007).In the context of South Africa, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) defines IWRM as a management strategy aimed to execute the sustainable use of water resources by all affected stakeholders at catchment, regional, national and international levels while maintaining the integrity of water resources at catchment levels. (Schulze et al, 2004).Universally, apart from the conceptual shortcomings of IWRM which hamper its effective implementation, IWRM is first and foremost an institutional challenge that demands institutional capacities for integration which is in short supply (Van de Zaag, 2005).5.2 Institutional challengesThe management of resources and formulations of projects and plans have been fragmented, unorganized and implemented in a top-down approach however, according to the Global Water Partnership 2000 one of the most fundamental pillars of IWRM is in tegrated and coordinated institutional frameworks through which policies, strategies and legislations can be implemented (Funke, et al 2007).The integrative capacity of many countries lie at district level were various government departments such as health, environmental and education participate in implementing multi sector rural development programs ( Van De Zaag, 2005).South Africa on the other hand overrides existing management structures creating a structure alongside but separate from existing structures that are defined by hydrological boundaries and is regarded a waste of institutional resources (Van de Zaag, 2005).The South African NWA of 1998 mandates the establishment of water management institutions resulting in the neglecting of focus on the practical implementation of IWRM (Van de Zaag, 2005). Institutional fragmentation still persists in South Africa because the countries environmental, water and land-use legislations and administrations are administered by separate l ines of functions in government ministries (Van de Zaag, 2005).5.3 Governance and politicsEffective implementation of IWRM is regarded as a product of good governance as it enables tradeoffs to be made between competing users for a resource with the aim of mitigating any conflict, enhancing equity, ensuring sustainability and holding officials liable for their actions (Funke et al, 2007).Participative, open and transparent governance plays an important part in forming the framework required for the successful implementation of IWRM. The issue however is that inefficient capacity and inefficient government processes and structures reside in countries with relatively ground democracies such as South Africa (Funke et al, 2007).Governance in developing countries lack the economic technical and human resources to implement IWRM and the challenge of politics and tradeoffs when making decisions regarding the allocation of water resources are needed as they form part of the problem and sol ution (Funke et al, 2007). With reference to South Africa, after the modification of the countries water law to address post inequities, makes it more challenging for the successful implementation of IWRM in the country (Funke et al, 2007).5.4 Public ParticipationAlthough public participation has been highly valued and recognized as being a fundamental component for the effective implementation of IWRM, there are inevitable problems and complexities that are associated with the process that needs to be taken into consideration (Smith, 2008).The four main problems associated with the process and highlighted by Smith 2008 is tokenism in terms of the degree to which local communities are involved in decision making, myths of regarding the community as a homogeneous ordered and cohesive body, local-level capacity constraints and critical lack of facilitator knowledge (Smith, 2008).The problem of tokenism is that communities are only considered important for the provision of local knowl edge regarding their environment and are not involved in important and effectual positions in the different levels of decision making processes (Smith, 2008). This may be due to the unwillingness of government to devolve their power to local level communities. This results in plans and legislations that are locally inappropriate (Smith, 2008).With regard to the community myth, most communities are simplified as cohesive homogenous and consonant entities with similar interests and goals instead of recognizing it as the complex heterogeneous organizations that they are (Smith, 2008). This fact must be included in management planning. This will then ensure locally appropriate outcomes.Other most problematic elements are the financial capacity constraints mainly experienced by bottom-up projects. Even though the community may be committed towards initiating a project, the essential element is economic material which local communities often lack (Smith, 2008). Therefore where there is c ommunity affair the economic and social capacities needs to be considered (Smith, 2008).The final problematic element is the lack of knowledge regarding the process of public participation held by facilitators resulting in an important process being facilitated by people without the necessary skills and capacities to initiate community participation initiatives (Smith, 2008).Despite the problems associated with public participation it is essential that the process be appreciated as an empowering, enlightening and sustainable approach to water resource management (Smith, 2008).

Tv Advertising And Peer Group Pressure Marketing Essay

Tv Advertising And Peer Group Pressure trade EssayChildren also exert a powerful influence over their parents to buy them the latest products, influenced by TV advertising and peer group pressure. TV/film and the latest toy crazes are also grave motherrs, so a strong stream of immature products heavily supported by the media lead help to ensure regular uplifts in toy sales.The big challenge is for toy retailers to avoid competing too heavily on price, so as to drive value growth in sales. This will be difficult given the slow pace of the economic recovery and the squeeze on incomes that will add-on in 2011 due to austerity measures being introduced to cut the government borrowing deficit.Licensed products will continue to be a major focus of new product launches, with ranges related to new TV or film releases supplementing long-established licensed ranges that continue to be popular. Educational toys that aid learning are also liable(predicate) to see growth.Nostalgic toys with a modern twist are another important area of the market and in terms of retailing the multi-channel combination of websites, catalogues and stores with a bit of added retail theatre will help drive incremental sales and reduce the heavy reliance on Christmas.This portable Mini impression Studio is designed to steer children away from video games and towards the artistic passion of photography. The concept came with the increase in popularity of social media and photo sharing, as well as a high percentage of digital photographic camera ownership.Market DescriptionMini Photo Studio is primarily foc affaird in the market of humanities and crafts products selling a product that will help develop the creativity of the children and teenagers by learning the beautiful art of photography.Demographic Analysis of ConsumersThe main prat market of the Mini Photo Studio is the young teenagers (9-16 old age) who are arouse in the artistic passion of photography. Children and young teenager s, who are aged between 9-16 years old, are generally interested in social networks, fashion, make-up, latest technology mobile phones and photography (Mintel, 2008). In addition, according to a 2008 Mintel Report the second disport used on mobile phones by young teenagers is the camera facility. Starting with 2003, young teenagers also have more disposable pocket-money to buy their own things and when shop with parents their own decision is the most important.There are different types of consumers interested in buying the Mini Photo Studio such as consumers interested to learn or develop the photography skills, or interested in modelling which are usually connected more with the eminence. As Mintel Report says honor endorsement is apparently more influential among children than among adults, with almost a quarter of parents claiming that their child/children aged 12+ are influenced by some kind of celebrity/pop/ sports star.The above characteristics of consumers were among the t op factors that came with the increase in popularity of social media and photo sharing, as well as a high percentage of digital camera ownership. With the main focus on creating a product designed to increase the creativity of the teenagers and to keep them away from the use of the video games, which according to Mintel, parents are bear on that video games can become addicted to their children, so it is beneficial for us to focus on this type of consumer.The consumers are those whose attitudes, behaviours, and use of goods are significantly important for their personal development and interest. They make brand choices based on new trends and celebrity endorsements. In fact, according to Mintel Children claim to place heavy emphasis on their own opinion when making purchasing decisions, with around 4 in 10 children claiming to be confident about their own opinions. Therefore any use of celebrities must not appear to dictate or lecture to children, instead allowing them to make info rmed purchase or usage decisions. This is especially important among old children, who are exerting their independence.

Project Management in SMEs

throw away solicitude in SMEsIntroduction To literature ReviewLiterature Review is d maven by knowing a clear definition of SMEs, its role in the Indian prudence. Then it is carried out by analyzing the definition of pouch prudence and its signifi backsidece in the SMEs, and next the definition of wander and its f w mountrors affecting the success of a cat was discussed. This chapter similarly deals with the staffing of a pop managing director, support police squad and excessively slightly the effective skills required for a plan motorcoach to implement thriving fancy instruction methodologies into an organisation. This literature also covered by the critical analysis of effective guess charge through protrusion Management practices in Sm each and Medium Enterprises in India, here mainly it was discussed rough the fictional characters of adventures that an organization escorts tour establishing/choosing a vendor, and ways of analysis this s consumes thr ough lying-in management techniques. This chapter also explained nearly the ways of implementing a chuck management methodological analysis into an SME and effects that a SME might face of implementing the labor movement management tools and techniques. exposition Of SmesSMEs rotter be defined in disagreeent forms due to broad admixture in occupation. A company is full generally distinguished as a footling or medium enterprise based on the total nume cast of employees, total teleph wholeness numberover and the correspondence sheet of the company. A company is considered as a small rigid if it has 50 employees with an annual shepherds crookover of about 5.6 meg and an annual balance sheet of 2.8 million. On the other hand, a firm is said to be a medium firm when it has a total of 250 employees with a overturn of about 22.8million and a balance sheet of 11.4million (company act 1985, Duke Ghosh, 2009).Role Of Smes In Indian EconomySMEs argon nearly vital part in the sustain able-bodied sparing growing and participating in a long run of teaching of industrial sector from the past few years, SMEs be considered as a stepping jewel for industrial growth. It has ability to transfer technology and modernization which films economic success in this modern era. In the development of discover and greater economic growth, competition, tractableness and swell communication are the required parameters, for this reason SMEs are becoming like of mixture of competitiveness in spite of appearance the economy magical spell providing flexibility and better communication system to the bed industrial social organisation. (Duke Ghosh, 2009)Recently the dimensions of the SMEs are seems likely to be increasing due to the government promotions and also its boost towards the goal of SMEs. The growth of the entrepreneurial sector rove been raised from 870,000 businesses in 1981 to nearly 4 million by 2003 by the identification of importance and its de velopment by the government of India. And it stood next to gigantic agricultural sector in providing the employment opportunities (Boulton and Turner, 2005).This SMEs are acting like a job providing engines, which indirectly fosterage the per capita of the nation economy. such(prenominal) firms book signifi dis aimt contributions to private sector employment and output, which appears to be increasing over prison term (Storey, 1994).The following diagram show the growth and the arrange of the development of the small industries development as on 2003 according to SIDOImportance Of Smes To The Indian EconomySMEs, however defined, constitute the majority of all enterprises in intimately of the economies in the public (OCED, 1998). SMEs are not only acting as employment generator but also achieved outstanding credit in Indian economy by satisfying its core intentions and macrocosm as a supporting body to the large firms. This is ace of the main reasons why the SMEs involve gaine d much than than attention from the politicians, policy-makers and academics. However, betwixt 1945 and the late 1960s there was little interest in small firms from either the government or academics. According to Mr. Pawan Kumar Bansal, Union Ministry of subject for Finance, Bangalore says that SMEs are playacting a vital role in socio-economic policies of Government of India.Foreign earning and imports of foreign capital intimatelys contribution be take ined of been developed by the socio economic policies of India (Mr. Pawan Kumar, 2007). SMEs were regarded as creation poorly managed, badly organised and reliant on outmoded technologies to produce inferior products and function (Manson and Harrison, 1990). For this reason the Indian government shoot implemented many another(prenominal) much SMEs policies for their development and mainly focused on promoting clusters of small firms and supporting the development of high-tech sector such as IT sectors and BPOs in Bang alore, and this policies have been very(prenominal)(prenominal) successful as a results many of the outsourcing companies from western countries are moving to India (Patrizio B, et. al, 2006). Starting with wide varieties of situations and approach, a huge amount of SMEs policies have been implemented in developing countries like India (Parrilli, 2005).Services have been the fastest-growing sector of the Indian economy over the past decades and helped to accelerate the overall growth rate of the economy, this work have also made Indias integration with the cosmos economy through trade and capital flows (Uma Kapila, 2009). The phenomenal growth and export in the services like IT and BPO have placed India on the global map as one of the major players in the field of knowledge-based services this also helped to improve the public presentation of the other sectors of the economy in turn helping the overall development. roll Management And Its Signifi ratceThis literature says forra der knowing about the moment of parturiency management in SMEs, it is substantial to explain the definition of the insure management and its approach of implementing a childbed as follows communicate ManagementThe purpose of go for management is to plan, take and control all activity so that the learn is entire as successfully as possible in spite of all the difficulties and take chancess. This process graduations before any resources are committed and must continue until all conk out is finished. The aim is for the final exam result to satisfy the objectives of both the fancy performer and the customer (Lock, 2006, p. 1)It is known that put ups differ from each other in more ways than one. They might differ in their social body structure, mode of operation, funds portion outd or nevertheless the military force they comprise of or their criticality to the business (Heldman, 2005). Even though a similar jut out has been carried out in the past, the projections wh itethorn differ in one or more aspects such as administrative, physical and commercial or a change in ways of working etc managing projects is a part of all(prenominal) business and is quintessential for the smooth functioning and success of the project. encounter Management includes all necessary activities acquireed to plan and execute a project (Lock, 2006).The two to the highest degree measurable steps confused in going about a project are discussed belowStep 1To decide what ineluctably to be through before the initiation of a project.The next set of requirements from a project management perspective is to estimate the follow of completing the project and make sure there are necessary funds available to execute the project so as to bring discern and revenue to the organization (Burke, 1999). muckle multiform in planning the project need to ensure beforehand that they pick the by rights concourse to execute the project and make them witting of the responsibilities assigned to them. Project resources are the key to success in any project and its rarely a one-man aggroup (Heldman, 2005). Therefore, a aggroup that has an untied-minded approach towards the project and all other people involved in the project and be prepared to displace and be actuate throughout the space of the project. This impart encourage police squadwork and commitment in what they do. One of the key things to ensure higher rates of success in a project is to choose the right mix of people and the right level of management looking for process improvement and thereby providing value added services to customers. This in turn helps organizations improve their qualification and help them to stay on realise of its competitors (Baron, 2005).Every person involved needs to be updated by project leaders and set forth the chain of communication to ensure adequate buy-in and at the same time commit to managing their expectations from the project. The main aim of communication is to keep everyone updated about any current developments that take place and keep them engaged (PMBOK, 2004).Provide clear briefs to people involved in the project to obtain commitment on work and deliveries (Baron, 2005).The support of sponsors is very important by making them commit to your approach. (Burke, 1999) Meeting the expectations of the stakeholders, meeting of objectives and requirements, meeting budget, meeting deadlines etc (Jeston and Nelis, 2006).Step 2We live in a competitive world where every firm attempts to make optimum use of resources and to be better than their competitors. This brings the area of proper planning and execution of the project. The main objective of planning a project well is to schedule and chart out the complete work for the project and because ensure arrangements are in tack together for work to start and continue as per schedule (Burke, 1999). For a project to be successful and be admired, it should complete on schedule.The project nee ds a leader who takes the final decision with the consent of all members in his/her team. He/she should portray the courtesy to leanen to subordinates even when the opinion is not being considered or implemented (Heldman, 2005). People who hunt out the project should be taken into confidence and spoken to regularly. Most importantly, a project should have clarity about its background knowledge, objectives, responsibilities, cost and accountability, scope for improvement should be considered and stockholders should be kept in confidence (PMBOK, 2004).The literature explains that the project management methodologies allow the project jitney to allocate and make more work done with less people and time, so it would be beneficial to the SME where it have very fewer people working. And also its make the organisation more effective by implementing more project in lesser time by providing clear control on the projects scope and changes and implementing them more in effect and efficient ly. Project management improves the line of decision making it also increases the quality of a project. SMEs can handle more projects by raising its business (Kerzner, 2003).Definition Of Project And Its Success FactorsProjectA project is a series of activities or assigns that have a specific objective to be completed within a determined specification have defined start and end dates usually funded and require resources (Kerzner 2003 Cooke-Davies 2001).When the project is said to be failed it is waste of capital, time and resource, a hot lessons /techniques/methodologies have to be learned from the failed projects and the project manager/ project authorities have to continue for the new project. Project management is one of the methodologies which deals the projects in a systematic manner and says the following are the essential factors to be made to complete successfully with a projectClarity In Project DefinitionProject manager has to make himself/herself with a clear idea and definition of the project, but not only he/she but also to his/her project team. He/she have to make sure about the project specifications such as what the project is about its aim, objectives, and its deliverables, etc. For model we can let out about the racing shell studies of some unsuccessful projects due to in clean-cut objectives and aims which are documented by Gray and Larson (Gray and Larson, 2002). Thus the chances of increasing project success lies in clear and distinct objectives and aims.Project FeasibilityIt is one among the factors which talks about the social, economical, political, human, cultural, financial and environsal factors which infrapins to the achievement of the project (Fullen, 2005). According to Khatib this factors would produce a skilful result for a project which undergoes a serious study, specified aim and objective and allocation of time (Khatib, 2003). Consistent feasibility makes a project manager to define himself with a clear and well pro ject aim, time specifications, and allocation of resources. A positive feasibility brings more chances to lead a project success. readyingAccording to Kerzner project planning in general, can best be draw as the function of selecting the enterprise objectives and establishing the policies, procedures, and programs necessary for achieving them. It can be described as a forecasting the environment and predefined course of action (Kerzner, 2003 ).According to Kerzner, there are four basic reasons for project planningElimination or reduction of uncertainty.up the efficiency of the operation.Understanding a better understanding of the objectives.To provide a basis for monitoring and controlling work.(Adapted from Kerzner, 2003)Work Breakdown construction (Wbs)The important task to be done by the project manger after project planning is dividing the work into manageable tasks. The work breakdown structure is a deliverable-oriented gradable decomposition of the work to be executed by th e project team, to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables (PMBOK, 2004). The work breakdown structure also explains complete scope of the project. The WBS divides the work into small tasks which are manageable and allow for have a specific responsible authority will be allocated, it will be in a manner of integratable so that the total work package is the summation of subdivided elements, and it will be as overmuch as sonant to be measure in terms of progress like estimating cost, scheduling, monitoring, and controlling (Kerzner, 2003).Involvement Of Project StakeholdersProject stakeholders are the undivideds and organizations that are actively involved in the project, or whose interests whitethorn be affected as a result of project execution or project completion. They may also exert work over the projects objectives and out mothers (PMBOK, 2004). Project stakeholders are also a part of the project success, to ensure this success the project te am have to locate their requirements, expectations, and their influence on the project. Stakeholders may have various levels of authority/responsibility on the project they may vary from occasional contributors to full sponsors for the project. Stakeholder who ignores this responsibility can have a damaging touch on on the project objectives. Likewise, project managers who ignore stakeholders can expect a damaging squeeze on project outcomes (PMBOK, 2004).The above number shows that every individual project is similar to the structure of the earth where in each sector plays an important role here the most interior structure is project manager who forms the base of any project. The project manager forms the integral part of a project management team along with whom he carry on the project. The project manager and the project management team together comprises of a project team where in this team entirely concentrate on the project that is to be taken. These three together works f or the satisfaction of the stakeholders interested in the completion of the project it may comprises of the senior management of the company the owners and the clients of the company.Staffing The Project Manager And Project TeamAs mention above to my literature the successful project includes on time delivery, must come across stakeholders expectations, within budget and have to congregate the project deliverables (Cooke-Davies, 2004). Project manager is one who plays a vital role to mix all shove to formulate the project to a success. Project manager is the individual ultimately responsible for managing and leading the project to its successful conclusion (Paul D, 2005). It is a role that entails a mix of competencies, unite management with leadership and political awareness (Pinto, 2000). Though understanding the role of project manager sounds true(p), but the upper management constantly find difficulties in the selection of a correct project manager.Project management is sai d to be successful only if the project manager and his team are altogether dedicated to the successful completion of the project. This requires the project team and project manager must have full(a) understanding of the fundamental project requirements (Kerzner, 2003). For this reason the upper management have to look up/focus at the following skills in the selection process from the individual to appoint him/her as a project manager (this are requirements demanded by a SME in its advertisement for a facilities planning and development project manager (adapted from The New York Times, January 2, 1972) (source Kerzner, 2003) product line Management SkillsIf project management is itself an organization, as the whole project group will work as a solo unit for the achievement of a common goal, then the project manager is the CEO of this organization. So the organization skills are predominantly important during project development.With strong business management skills, he/she must be able to achieve the most excellent hysterics across teams and in the midst of all project resources of the organisation. It requires defining the reporting relationship, responsibilities, line of control, and data needs. A good program plan and a task matrix are useful organisation tools plus clear defined program objectives, open communication channels, good program leadership, and senior management support (Kerzner, 2003).Leadership SkillsProject manager is the one who has to manage his/her team and make them to follow him/her, has to act as a leader. He/she has to have a clear project leadership and own direction to direct the team members. He/she must be able to clobber the conflicts, assistance in problem-solving, as a project leader he/she as to represent his/her team to upper level management. He/she as to motivate the project team members towards common vision. Project manager as a leader has to remain as a inspiration to his/her project team (Kerzner, 2003). good SkillsT echnical skills is an superlative addition remark for a project manager, if his proficiency applicable to the project, by this he/she can have good thoughts and understanding about the projects and can work out more for his/her profound project objective (Horine 2005 Murch 2001). Now a day this skills achieved a greater importance, without practiced skills a project manager cannot understand the present commercialise, updated technology and the environment of the business. With the help of these practiced skills one can understand the consequences or skilful risks that en antagonistic in the project, for example a software engineer being as a project manager and handling a software development project can easily sort the risks that appear in that project. He/she can make sure of his/her project team with a clear understanding of the foreseen risks that may appear in the project. According to Kerzner, 2003 the technical expertise is composed of the following understandingTechnol ogy involvedEngineering tools and techniques employedSpecified markets, their customers, and requirementsProduct finishTechnological trends and evolutions race among supporting technologiesPeople who are part of the technical community(Source Kerzner, 2003)Communication SkillsAnother important skill set must be posed by the project manager is communication skills. Project manager influence people o take action, this requires an ability to communicate in a style impound for the individual concerned (Paul D, 2005). Project manager is the communication channel throughout the project. Project manager is effective manner of communication hub mingled with the project team and the end users.Project manager have to act as a communication radio and have to carry the stakeholders expectations towards the project team and have to bring the project to a successful effective end. Moreover, a successful project manager ensures smooth info sharing across teams via lend a communication-driven environment that allows for efficient spread, user-friendliness and use of information.Conflict Resolution SkillsNo project end up successfully without any conflicts, there might be foreseen risks or conflicts amidst the project team members or conflicts between project team and stakeholders. So this is the main reason that the project manager, the CEO of project management organization has to possess the problem solving skills/conflict resolution skills. Project success lies with how well the project manager solves the problems/conflicts. Soundness of the solution taken by the project manager with a logical and analytical thinking conforms how well the project manager good at reaching the project to a successful end. However these conflicts are beneficial to a project which indirectly increases the competiveness among the team members involved the project (Kerzner, 2003).Project Management ExperienceImplementing successful project management lies in the pass on of able project m anager, so the project manager is responsible character and must possess prior project management follow up in general. Project management is body of knowledge which can be learned from the realistic knowledge, but its not a skill which comes by itself.A well subordinate project manager will be very much able to implement a successful project management into an organization. previous(prenominal) knowledge makes a manager to overcome all the challenges that he/she face in completing a project by using project management. some other SkillsThere are so many other skills such as planning, resource allocation, management support building, and time management skills, etc, which make the project manager to lay his/her street successful in controlling the projects successfully.Not only this but also the entrepreneurial skills and administrative skills are very important in understanding the tactical maneuver and implement them in his/her own project and make the project victorious (Ker zner, 2003).A Critical Analysis Of Effective Risk Management Through Project Management Practices In Small And Medium Enterprises In IndiaRiskVose (2008, p. 3) defines the term risk as a random event that may possibly issue forth and, if it did exit, would have a negative impact on the goals of the organization. Thus, a risk is composed of three elements the scenario its probability of concomitant and the size of its impact if it did occur. whatsoever risk could prove an organisation wrong in its quest to achieve success. Risks can occur in various forms and their impact can vary under a lot of factors. In a high cost business environment that is under fierce competition from companies not righteous on a national, but also on a global level, the chances of risks arising multiply quickly and heavily (Crouhy et al., 2000). A firm can easily nod off its name in the market because they had overlooked a miniscule drawback that their competitors overcame. Therefore, risks not only ca rry financial implications with them, but also other factors such as brand image, market credibility or loss of market share. To analyse and understand these implications, it is necessary to understand the types of risks and their varying characteristics (Flynn, 2008). Click and collectablening (2004) have come up with a list of the various types of risks such as human capital risks, Confidentiality risks, overall project risks, and scope risks, persist risks, estimation risks and dependence risks may occur in the business. In addition to this there might be property (intellectual), legal, value related or unavoidable natural risks that generally exist and arise in a business.Types of risksHuman capital risks This has always been an important part of the business activity. People who work towards organizational goals are the most critical assets of the firm and the project (Beasley et al., 2004). A loss of an employee who was very important to the smooth functioning of a projec t can be a risky proposition because a new individual joining the project would need time to understand and try a lot of factors contribute to the project. This would invariably lead to loss of productivity, a slump in team morale or even loss of time and gold (Flynn, 2008).Project risks These risks arise because of a lot of other risks contributing to the main risk of a project being delayed or even shelved in certain cases. There have also been instances where proper planning and regulation were rattlepated or goals misunderstood leading to extended timeframes to complete the project thus leading to change magnitude investments of critical resources (Sanchez Canton, 1998). A very good example of project risks can be seen in Government funded public projects or even military developmental projects where public time and money is involved.Confidentiality risk The second most important risk that may appear in dealing a project is confidentiality risk, it by and large appear due to lack of secrecy. This is in particular for the large projects. The information have to be kept confidential, if not the competitors with large team members may understand the work flow/formulae of the project and be able to built the project earlier as before you can. We must be careful especially when we involve contractors or outsiders into the project. Effective project management may help in having a good communication line among the team members, marketing staff, and contractors this may helps to keep the information confidential (T Kendrick, 2009)Scope risks This is another type of risk which mostly appears when the project starts to take a shape. This is due to requirement of a new technology, unfamiliar developments of tools or methods, poor testing criteria, inconsistent specification, shadowy product definition, and technical complication (T Kendrick, 2009)Delay risks Delay risk is part of schedule risks and these are after scope risks, these risks mainly appear due to the delay of the essential move required for a project, it include customs, Paperwork, delivery, and related concerns. This is also due to the delay of information needed, communication gap and misunderstanding among the team members/ project stakeholders, etc. Due this factor the project may delay for some days, months or may be for years (T Kendrick, 2009)Estimating risks Estimating risk appears mostly in technical projects. Project manager mostly says the typical risks arise in the project is estimating risks. Estimating risks occurs when there are learning curves ( when the quality of estimates of new technology, or new people involvement is not good), judgements (misunderstanding, disintegration of work), and imposed deadlines (forceful deadlines set in advance, when an objective is retained) (T Kendrick, 2009)Dependency risks Other projects, infrastructure factors, and legal issues are three sub categories of dependency risks. In general large project are sub divided into small projects and mostly these small project will be dependent on the other, unfortunately when one small project is delayed/stopped the other projects which are dependent on it will be delayed. Even for the interfaces that were defined in advance, delay was fairly common due to the uncertainty in each project (T Kendrick, 2009)The above section has detailed the different types of risks that normally exist or co-exist in projects. Their modes of occurrence and the impact they can have on the project and the firm has been explained in brief. The following part would attempt to explain ways that firms, projects and managers involved employ to analyse and manage the same since the occurrence of a risk can pose a threat to the above in terms of time, money or even failure to deliver what has been promised.Analyzing And Managing RisksWays to manage risks with limited impact on other resourcesRisks are present in abundance in any IT and outsourcing industries because of the processes be ing tightly interlinked such as business processes, database, or process reengineering. Therefore, it is very important toIdentify risks. regard risks for probability of risk occurring.Weigh risks for criticality/impact at your operations.Plan to reduce risk (to zero if appropriate, for example for a safety critical industry) (Sanchez Canton, 1998).A simple way of explaining risk analysis is to take an airplane for example because the traveler, who is the user, has zero tolerance to risks. In similar manner, risk analysis can be carried out for other products and services too. The most important indicative risks are business continuity management risks, information security/data privacy risks and process related risks (Lock, 2001).The need to evaluate and monitor risks involved from an Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) perspective takes higher priority over other means of analysis in the information age of business (Flynn, 2008). It can be seen in the ERM diagram below the different risks across the entire organization that exist or arise and the need for them to be managed effectively (Beasley et al., 2004).An important reason firms should stress on analysing risks is the realization that risks delay chances of sticking to time schedules agreed by project leaders to customers in turn leading to increased investment of resources in the form of man hours and time (PMBOK, 2004). This causes increase in investment of capital, which is something neither customers nor firms involved like to do.Risks occur at every stagecoach of a project thus increasing stress on carrying out risk analysis and minimize the effects of risks on a given project. It means that risks and errors still occur when thorough analyses of their occurrence have been chalked out and steps have been implemented to minimize the effects they have on a project (Burke, 1999). However, prior knowledge of a risk occurring at a given period in the project enables people involved to counter the risk eff ectively and minimize or erase the impact it could have had on the project. Before the project could be initiated, assessing risks by knowing in charter what the project intends to do and the reason for it to be outsourced becomes very important. This could include assessing project behaviour under varying market conditions and the expected growth rate it can attain within a given period of time (Dickson, 2003).Risks need to be analyzed in a detailed manner by the top management in order to understand the various options available to conduct a cost-benefit analysis. This understanding and analysis becomes significant in implementing a sound risk management plan. A project taken up poses as a risk in itself to explore opportunities that lie waiting on the other side. Therefore, threats need to be lessen aProject Management in SMEsProject Management in SMEsIntroduction To Literature ReviewLiterature Review is done by knowing a clear definition of SMEs, its role in the Indian economy . Then it is carried out by analyzing the definition of project management and its significance in the SMEs, and next the definition of project and its factors affecting the success of a project was discussed. This chapter also deals with the staffing of a project manager, project team and also about the effective skills required for a project manager to implement successful project management methodologies into an organization. This literature also covered by the critical analysis of effective risk management through Project Management practices in Small and Medium Enterprises in India, here mainly it was discussed about the types of risks that an organization encounters while establishing/choosing a vendor, and ways of analysis this risks through project management techniques. This chapter also explained about the ways of implementing a project management methodology into an SME and effects that a SME might face of implementing the project management tools and techniques.Definitio n Of SmesSMEs can be defined in different forms due to broad mixture in business. A company is generally distinguished as a small or medium enterprise based on the total number of employees, total turnover and the balance sheet of the company. A company is considered as a small firm if it has 50 employees with an annual turnover of about 5.6 million and an annual balance sheet of 2.8 million. On the other hand, a firm is said to be a medium firm when it has a total of 250 employees with a turnover of about 22.8million and a balance sheet of 11.4million (company act 1985, Duke Ghosh, 2009).Role Of Smes In Indian EconomySMEs are most vital part in the sustainable economical growth and participating in a long run of development of industrial sector from the past few years, SMEs are considered as a stepping stone for industrial growth. It has ability to transfer technology and modernization which brings economic success in this modern era. In the development of better and greater econom ic growth, competition, flexibility and good communication are the required parameters, for this reason SMEs are becoming like of mixture of competitiveness within the economy while providing flexibility and better communication system to the complete industrial structure. (Duke Ghosh, 2009)Recently the dimensions of the SMEs are seems likely to be increasing due to the government promotions and also its encouragement towards the goal of SMEs. The growth of the entrepreneurial sector have been raised from 870,000 businesses in 1981 to nearly 4 million by 2003 by the identification of importance and its development by the government of India. And it stood next to gigantic agricultural sector in providing the employment opportunities (Boulton and Turner, 2005).This SMEs are acting like a job providing engines, which indirectly raising the per capita of the nation economy. Such firms make significant contributions to private sector employment and output, which appears to be increasing overtime (Storey, 1994).The following diagram show the growth and the position of the development of the small industries development as on 2003 according to SIDOImportance Of Smes To The Indian EconomySMEs, however defined, constitute the majority of all enterprises in most of the economies in the world (OCED, 1998). SMEs are not only acting as employment generator but also achieved outstanding credit in Indian economy by satisfying its core objectives and being as a supporting body to the large firms. This is one of the main reasons why the SMEs have gained more attention from the politicians, policy-makers and academics. However, between 1945 and the late 1960s there was little interest in small firms from either the government or academics. According to Mr. Pawan Kumar Bansal, Union Ministry of State for Finance, Bangalore says that SMEs are playing a vital role in socio-economic policies of Government of India.Foreign earning and imports of foreign capital goods contribution ha ve been developed by the socio economic policies of India (Mr. Pawan Kumar, 2007). SMEs were regarded as being poorly managed, badly organised and reliant on outmoded technologies to produce inferior products and services (Manson and Harrison, 1990). For this reason the Indian government have implemented many more SMEs policies for their development and mainly focused on promoting clusters of small firms and supporting the development of high-tech sector such as IT sectors and BPOs in Bangalore, and this policies have been very successful as a results many of the outsourcing companies from western countries are moving to India (Patrizio B, et. al, 2006). Starting with wide varieties of situations and approach, a huge amount of SMEs policies have been implemented in developing countries like India (Parrilli, 2005).Services have been the fastest-growing sector of the Indian economy over the past decades and helped to accelerate the overall growth rate of the economy, this services hav e also made Indias integration with the world economy through trade and capital flows (Uma Kapila, 2009). The phenomenal growth and export in the services like IT and BPO have placed India on the global map as one of the major players in the field of knowledge-based services this also helped to improve the performance of the other sectors of the economy in turn helping the overall development.Project Management And Its SignificanceThis literature says before knowing about the significance of project management in SMEs, it is important to explain the definition of the project management and its approach of implementing a project as followsProject ManagementThe purpose of project management is to plan, organize and control all activity so that the project is completed as successfully as possible in spite of all the difficulties and risks. This process starts before any resources are committed and must continue until all work is finished. The aim is for the final result to satisfy the objectives of both the project performer and the customer (Lock, 2006, p. 1)It is known that projects differ from each other in more ways than one. They might differ in their structure, mode of operation, funds allocated or even the strength they comprise of or their criticality to the business (Heldman, 2005). Even though a similar project has been carried out in the past, the projects may differ in one or more aspects such as administrative, physical and commercial or a change in ways of working etc managing projects is a part of every business and is quintessential for the smooth functioning and success of the project. Project Management includes all necessary activities needed to plan and execute a project (Lock, 2006).The two most important steps involved in going about a project are discussed belowStep 1To decide what needs to be done before the initiation of a project.The next set of requirements from a project management perspective is to estimate the cost of completing the project and make sure there are necessary funds available to execute the project so as to bring name and revenue to the organization (Burke, 1999).People involved in planning the project need to ensure beforehand that they pick the right people to execute the project and make them aware of the responsibilities assigned to them. Project resources are the key to success in any project and its rarely a one-man team (Heldman, 2005). Therefore, a team that has an open-minded approach towards the project and all other people involved in the project and be prepared to motivate and be motivated throughout the length of the project. This will encourage teamwork and commitment in what they do. One of the key things to ensure higher rates of success in a project is to choose the right mix of people and the right level of management looking for process improvement and thereby providing value added services to customers. This in turn helps organizations improve their efficiency and help them to stay on top of its competitors (Baron, 2005).Every person involved needs to be updated by project leaders and start the chain of communication to ensure adequate buy-in and at the same time commit to managing their expectations from the project. The main aim of communication is to keep everyone updated about any latest developments that take place and keep them engaged (PMBOK, 2004).Provide clear briefs to people involved in the project to obtain commitment on work and deliveries (Baron, 2005).The support of sponsors is very important by making them commit to your approach. (Burke, 1999) Meeting the expectations of the stakeholders, meeting of objectives and requirements, meeting budget, meeting deadlines etc (Jeston and Nelis, 2006).Step 2We live in a competitive world where every firm attempts to make optimum use of resources and to be better than their competitors. This brings the area of proper planning and execution of the project. The main objective of planning a project well is to schedule and chart out the complete work for the project and then ensure arrangements are in order for work to start and continue as per schedule (Burke, 1999). For a project to be successful and be admired, it should complete on schedule.The project needs a leader who takes the final decision with the consent of all members in his/her team. He/she should portray the courtesy to listen to subordinates even when the opinion is not being considered or implemented (Heldman, 2005). People who carry out the project should be taken into confidence and spoken to regularly. Most importantly, a project should have clarity about its scope, objectives, responsibilities, cost and accountability, scope for improvement should be considered and stockholders should be kept in confidence (PMBOK, 2004).The literature explains that the project management methodologies allow the project manager to allocate and make more work done with less people and time, so it would be beneficial to the SME whe re it have very fewer people working. And also its make the organisation more effective by implementing more project in lesser time by providing clear control on the projects scope and changes and implementing them more effectively and efficiently. Project management improves the line of decision making it also increases the quality of a project. SMEs can handle more projects by raising its business (Kerzner, 2003).Definition Of Project And Its Success FactorsProjectA project is a series of activities or tasks that have a specific objective to be completed within a determined specification have defined start and end dates usually funded and require resources (Kerzner 2003 Cooke-Davies 2001).When the project is said to be failed it is waste of capital, time and resource, a new lessons /techniques/methodologies have to be learned from the failed projects and the project manager/ project authorities have to continue for the new project. Project management is one of the methodologies wh ich deals the projects in a systematic manner and says the following are the essential factors to be made to complete successfully with a projectClarity In Project DefinitionProject manager has to make himself/herself with a clear idea and definition of the project, but not only he/she but also to his/her project team. He/she have to make sure about the project specifications such as what the project is about its aim, objectives, and its deliverables, etc. For example we can talk about the case studies of some unsuccessful projects due to indistinct objectives and aims which are documented by Gray and Larson (Gray and Larson, 2002). Thus the chances of increasing project success lies in clear and distinct objectives and aims.Project FeasibilityIt is one among the factors which talks about the social, economical, political, human, cultural, financial and environmental factors which underpins to the achievement of the project (Fullen, 2005). According to Khatib this factors would prod uce a good result for a project which undergoes a serious study, specified aim and objective and allocation of time (Khatib, 2003). Consistent feasibility makes a project manager to define himself with a clear and well project aim, time specifications, and allocation of resources. A positive feasibility brings more chances to lead a project success.PlanningAccording to Kerzner project planning in general, can best be described as the function of selecting the enterprise objectives and establishing the policies, procedures, and programs necessary for achieving them. It can be described as a forecasting the environment and predefined course of action (Kerzner, 2003 ).According to Kerzner, there are four basic reasons for project planningElimination or reduction of uncertainty.Improving the efficiency of the operation.Understanding a better understanding of the objectives.To provide a basis for monitoring and controlling work.(Adapted from Kerzner, 2003)Work Breakdown Structure (Wbs)Th e important task to be done by the project manger after project planning is dividing the work into manageable tasks. The work breakdown structure is a deliverable-oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed by the project team, to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables (PMBOK, 2004). The work breakdown structure also explains complete scope of the project. The WBS divides the work into small tasks which are manageable and will have a specific responsible authority will be allocated, it will be in a manner of integratable so that the total work package is the summation of subdivided elements, and it will be as much as easy to be measure in terms of progress like estimating cost, scheduling, monitoring, and controlling (Kerzner, 2003).Involvement Of Project StakeholdersProject stakeholders are the individuals and organizations that are actively involved in the project, or whose interests may be affected as a result of project executio n or project completion. They may also exert influence over the projects objectives and outcomes (PMBOK, 2004). Project stakeholders are also a part of the project success, to ensure this success the project team have to identify their requirements, expectations, and their influence on the project. Stakeholders may have various levels of authority/responsibility on the project they may vary from occasional contributors to full sponsors for the project. Stakeholder who ignores this responsibility can have a damaging impact on the project objectives. Likewise, project managers who ignore stakeholders can expect a damaging impact on project outcomes (PMBOK, 2004).The above figure shows that every individual project is similar to the structure of the earth where in each sector plays an important role here the most interior structure is project manager who forms the base of any project. The project manager forms the integral part of a project management team along with whom he carry on t he project. The project manager and the project management team together comprises of a project team where in this team wholly concentrate on the project that is to be taken. These three together works for the satisfaction of the stakeholders interested in the completion of the project it may comprises of the senior management of the company the owners and the clients of the company.Staffing The Project Manager And Project TeamAs mention above to my literature the successful project includes on time delivery, must come across stakeholders expectations, within budget and have to congregate the project deliverables (Cooke-Davies, 2004). Project manager is one who plays a vital role to mix all stuff to formulate the project to a success. Project manager is the individual ultimately responsible for managing and leading the project to its successful conclusion (Paul D, 2005). It is a role that entails a mix of competencies, combining management with leadership and political awareness (Pi nto, 2000). Though understanding the role of project manager sounds good, but the upper management always find difficulties in the selection of a correct project manager.Project management is said to be successful only if the project manager and his team are totally dedicated to the successful completion of the project. This requires the project team and project manager must have good understanding of the fundamental project requirements (Kerzner, 2003). For this reason the upper management have to look up/focus at the following skills in the selection process from the individual to appoint him/her as a project manager (this are requirements demanded by a SME in its advertisement for a facilities planning and development project manager (adapted from The New York Times, January 2, 1972) (source Kerzner, 2003)Business Management SkillsIf project management is itself an organization, as the whole project group will work as a solo unit for the achievement of a common goal, then the pro ject manager is the CEO of this organization. So the organization skills are predominantly important during project development.With strong business management skills, he/she must be able to achieve the most excellent hysterics across teams and in the midst of all project resources of the organisation. It requires defining the reporting relationship, responsibilities, line of control, and information needs. A good program plan and a task matrix are useful organisation tools plus clear defined program objectives, open communication channels, good program leadership, and senior management support (Kerzner, 2003).Leadership SkillsProject manager is the one who has to manage his/her team and make them to follow him/her, has to act as a leader. He/she has to have a clear project leadership and own direction to direct the team members. He/she must be able to solve the conflicts, assistance in problem-solving, as a project leader he/she as to represent his/her team to upper level managemen t. He/she as to motivate the project team members towards common vision. Project manager as a leader has to remain as a inspiration to his/her project team (Kerzner, 2003).Technical SkillsTechnical skills is an superlative addition remark for a project manager, if his proficiency applicable to the project, by this he/she can have good thoughts and understanding about the projects and can work out more for his/her profound project objective (Horine 2005 Murch 2001). Now a day this skills achieved a greater importance, without technical skills a project manager cannot understand the present market, updated technology and the environment of the business. With the help of these technical skills one can understand the consequences or technical risks that encounter in the project, for example a software engineer being as a project manager and handling a software development project can easily sort the risks that appear in that project. He/she can make sure of his/her project team with a c lear understanding of the foreseen risks that may appear in the project. According to Kerzner, 2003 the technical expertise is composed of the following understandingTechnology involvedEngineering tools and techniques employedSpecified markets, their customers, and requirementsProduct applicationTechnological trends and evolutionsRelationship among supporting technologiesPeople who are part of the technical community(Source Kerzner, 2003)Communication SkillsAnother important skill set must be posed by the project manager is communication skills. Project manager influence people o take action, this requires an ability to communicate in a style appropriate for the individual concerned (Paul D, 2005). Project manager is the communication channel throughout the project. Project manager is effective means of communication hub between the project team and the end users.Project manager have to act as a communication radio and have to carry the stakeholders expectations towards the project team and have to bring the project to a successful effective end. Moreover, a successful project manager ensures smooth information sharing across teams via instilling a communication-driven environment that allows for efficient spread, user-friendliness and use of information.Conflict Resolution SkillsNo project end up successfully without any conflicts, there might be foreseen risks or conflicts between the project team members or conflicts between project team and stakeholders. So this is the main reason that the project manager, the CEO of project management organization has to possess the problem solving skills/conflict resolution skills. Project success lies with how well the project manager solves the problems/conflicts. Soundness of the solution taken by the project manager with a logical and analytical thinking conforms how well the project manager good at reaching the project to a successful end. However these conflicts are beneficial to a project which indirectly increase s the competiveness among the team members involved the project (Kerzner, 2003).Project Management ExperienceImplementing successful project management lies in the hands of able project manager, so the project manager is responsible character and must possess prior project management experience in general. Project management is body of knowledge which can be learned from the realistic knowledge, but its not a skill which comes by itself.A well qualified project manager will be very much able to implement a successful project management into an organization. Past knowledge makes a manager to overcome all the challenges that he/she face in completing a project by using project management.Other SkillsThere are so many other skills such as planning, resource allocation, management support building, and time management skills, etc, which make the project manager to lay his/her path successful in controlling the projects successfully.Not only this but also the entrepreneurial skills and a dministrative skills are very important in understanding the tactics and implement them in his/her own project and make the project victorious (Kerzner, 2003).A Critical Analysis Of Effective Risk Management Through Project Management Practices In Small And Medium Enterprises In IndiaRiskVose (2008, p. 3) defines the term risk as a random event that may possibly occur and, if it did occur, would have a negative impact on the goals of the organization. Thus, a risk is composed of three elements the scenario its probability of occurrence and the size of its impact if it did occur.Any risk could prove an organisation wrong in its quest to achieve success. Risks can occur in various forms and their impact can vary under a lot of factors. In a high cost business environment that is under fierce competition from companies not just on a national, but also on a global level, the chances of risks arising multiply quickly and heavily (Crouhy et al., 2000). A firm can easily lose its name in t he market because they had overlooked a miniscule drawback that their competitors overcame. Therefore, risks not only carry financial implications with them, but also other factors such as brand image, market credibility or loss of market share. To analyse and understand these implications, it is necessary to understand the types of risks and their varying characteristics (Flynn, 2008). Click and Duening (2004) have come up with a list of the various types of risks such as human capital risks, Confidentiality risks, overall project risks, and scope risks, delay risks, estimation risks and dependency risks may occur in the business. In addition to this there might be property (intellectual), legal, value related or unavoidable natural risks that generally exist and arise in a business.Types of risksHuman capital risks This has always been an important part of the business activity. People who work towards organizational goals are the most critical assets of the firm and the project (Beasley et al., 2004). A loss of an employee who was very important to the smooth functioning of a project can be a risky proposition because a new individual joining the project would need time to understand and evaluate a lot of factors contributing to the project. This would invariably lead to loss of productivity, a slump in team morale or even loss of time and money (Flynn, 2008).Project risks These risks arise because of a lot of other risks contributing to the main risk of a project being delayed or even shelved in certain cases. There have also been instances where proper planning and regulation were absent or goals misunderstood leading to extended timeframes to complete the project thus leading to increased investments of critical resources (Sanchez Canton, 1998). A very good example of project risks can be seen in Government funded public projects or even military developmental projects where public time and money is involved.Confidentiality risk The second most import ant risk that may appear in dealing a project is confidentiality risk, it mostly appear due to lack of secrecy. This is especially for the large projects. The information have to be kept confidential, if not the competitors with large team members may understand the work flow/formulae of the project and be able to built the project earlier as before you can. We must be careful especially when we involve contractors or outsiders into the project. Effective project management may help in having a good communication line among the team members, marketing staff, and contractors this may helps to keep the information confidential (T Kendrick, 2009)Scope risks This is another type of risk which mostly appears when the project starts to take a shape. This is due to requirement of a new technology, unfamiliar developments of tools or methods, poor testing criteria, inconsistent specification, undefined product definition, and technical complication (T Kendrick, 2009)Delay risks Delay risk i s part of schedule risks and these are after scope risks, these risks mainly appear due to the delay of the essential parts required for a project, it include customs, Paperwork, delivery, and related concerns. This is also due to the delay of information needed, communication gap and misunderstanding among the team members/ project stakeholders, etc. Due this factor the project may delay for some days, months or may be for years (T Kendrick, 2009)Estimating risks Estimating risk appears mostly in technical projects. Project manager mostly says the typical risks arise in the project is estimating risks. Estimating risks occurs when there are learning curves ( when the quality of estimates of new technology, or new people involvement is not good), judgements (misunderstanding, disintegration of work), and imposed deadlines (forceful deadlines set in advance, when an objective is retained) (T Kendrick, 2009)Dependency risks Other projects, infrastructure factors, and legal issues are three sub categories of dependency risks. In general large project are sub divided into small projects and mostly these small project will be dependent on the other, unfortunately when one small project is delayed/stopped the other projects which are dependent on it will be delayed. Even for the interfaces that were defined in advance, delay was fairly common due to the uncertainty in each project (T Kendrick, 2009)The above section has detailed the different types of risks that normally exist or co-exist in projects. Their modes of occurrence and the impact they can have on the project and the firm has been explained in brief. The following part would attempt to explain ways that firms, projects and managers involved employ to analyse and manage the same since the occurrence of a risk can pose a threat to the above in terms of time, money or even failure to deliver what has been promised.Analyzing And Managing RisksWays to manage risks with limited impact on other resourcesRisks ar e present in abundance in any IT and outsourcing industries because of the processes being tightly interlinked such as business processes, database, or process reengineering. Therefore, it is very important toIdentify risks.Weigh risks for probability of risk occurring.Weigh risks for criticality/impact at your operations.Plan to reduce risk (to zero if appropriate, for example for a safety critical industry) (Sanchez Canton, 1998).A simple way of explaining risk analysis is to take an airplane for example because the traveler, who is the user, has zero tolerance to risks. In similar manner, risk analysis can be carried out for other products and services too. The most important indicative risks are business continuity management risks, information security/data privacy risks and process related risks (Lock, 2001).The need to evaluate and monitor risks involved from an Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) perspective takes higher priority over other means of analysis in the information age of business (Flynn, 2008). It can be seen in the ERM diagram below the different risks across the entire organization that exist or arise and the need for them to be managed effectively (Beasley et al., 2004).An important reason firms should stress on analysing risks is the realization that risks delay chances of sticking to time schedules agreed by project leaders to customers in turn leading to increased investment of resources in the form of man hours and time (PMBOK, 2004). This causes increase in investment of capital, which is something neither customers nor firms involved like to do.Risks occur at every stage of a project thus increasing stress on carrying out risk analysis and minimize the effects of risks on a given project. It means that risks and errors still occur when thorough analyses of their occurrence have been chalked out and steps have been implemented to minimize the effects they have on a project (Burke, 1999). However, prior knowledge of a risk occurring a t a given period in the project enables people involved to counter the risk effectively and minimize or erase the impact it could have had on the project. Before the project could be initiated, assessing risks by knowing in exact what the project intends to do and the reason for it to be outsourced becomes very important. This could include assessing project behaviour under varying market conditions and the expected growth rate it can attain within a given period of time (Dickson, 2003).Risks need to be analyzed in a detailed manner by the top management in order to understand the various options available to conduct a cost-benefit analysis. This understanding and analysis becomes significant in implementing a sound risk management plan. A project taken up poses as a risk in itself to explore opportunities that lie waiting on the other side. Therefore, threats need to be minimized a